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The Biology of Beta vulgaris L. (Sugar Beet)

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Biology document BIO2023-01: A companion document to Directive 94-08 (Dir94-08), Assessment Criteria for Determining Environmental Safety of Plant with Novel Traits

This document replaces BIO2002-01 [The Biology of Beta vulgaris L. (Sugar Beet)].

On this page

  1. 1. General administrative information
    1. 1.1 Background
    2. 1.2 Scope
  2. 2. Identity
    1. 2.1 Name
    2. 2.2 Family
    3. 2.3 Synonyms
    4. 2.4 Common names
    5. 2.5 Taxonomy and genetics
    6. 2.6 General description
  3. 3. Geographical distribution
    1. 3.1 Origin and history of introduction
    2. 3.2 Native range
    3. 3.3 Introduced range
    4. 3.4 Potential range in North America
    5. 3.5 Habitat
  4. 4. Biology
    1. 4.1 Reproductive biology
    2. 4.2 Breeding and seed production
    3. 4.3 Cultivation and use as a crop
    4. 4.4 Gene flow during commercial seed and biomass production
    5. 4.5 Cultivated sugar beet as a volunteer weed
      1. 4.5.1 Cultural/mechanical control
      2. 4.5.2 Chemical control
      3. 4.5.3 Integrated weed management
    6. 4.6 Means of movement and dispersal
  5. 5. Related species of B. vulgaris
    1. 5.1 Inter-species/genus hybridization
    2. 5.2 Potential for introgression of genetic information from B. vulgaris into relatives
  6. 6. Potential interaction of B. vulgaris with other life forms

1. General administrative information

1.1 Background

The Canadian Food Inspection Agency's Plant Biotechnology Risk Assessment (PBRA) unit is responsible for assessing the potential risk to the environment from the release of plants with novel traits (PNTs) into the Canadian environment.

Risk assessments conducted by the PBRA unit require biological information about the plant species being assessed. Therefore, these assessments can be done in conjunction with species-specific biology documents that provide the necessary biological information. When a PNT is assessed, these biology documents serve as companion documents to Dir 94-08: Assessment Criteria for Determining Environmental Safety of Plants with Novel Traits.

1.2 Scope

This document is intended to provide background information on the biology of Beta vulgaris including:

Such information will be used during risk assessments conducted by the PBRA unit. Specifically, it may be used to characterize the potential risk from the release of the plant into the Canadian environment with regard to:

2. Identity

2.1 Name

Beta vulgaris L.Footnote 1

2.2 Family

Amaranthaceae (formerly Chenopodiaceae) family. Members of this family are dicotyledonous and usually herbaceousFootnote 2

2.3 Synonyms

NoneFootnote 1,Footnote 3

2.4 Common names

B. vulgaris is commonly referred to as:

2.5 Taxonomy and genetics

B. vulgaris has 2n = 18 chromosomesFootnote 6. The genus Beta has 9 chromosomes per haploid set (n = 9) (see table 2).

Taxonomic positionFootnote 3
Taxon Scientific name and common name
Kingdom Plantae (plants)
Subkingdom Viridiplantae (green plants)
Superdivision Embryophyta
Division Tracheophyta (vascular plants)
Subdivision Spermatophytina (seed plants)
Class Magnoliopsida (dicotyledons)
Superorder Caryophyllanae
Order Caryophyllales
Family Amaranthaceae (pigweed, amaranths)
Tribe Betae
Genus Beta L. (beet)
Species Beta vulgaris L.

There are 3 subspecies of B. vulgarisFootnote 1:

Cultivated beets belong to the subspecies Beta vulgaris L. subsp. vulgaris. This document focuses on Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris var. altissima (sugar beet).

2.6 General description

Sugar beet is normally a biennial species; however, under certain conditions it can act as an annualFootnote 7. The sugar beet plant develops a large succulent taproot in the first year and a seed stalk in the second year. Typically, sugar beet root crops are planted in the spring and harvested in the autumn of the same year. For seed production, an overwintering period with temperatures of 4 to 7 degrees Celsius (°C) (vernalization) is required for the root to bolt in the next growing season and initiate the reproductive stageFootnote 7.

During the first growing season, the sugar beet plant has glabrous leaves that are ovate to cordate in shape and dark green in colour. The leaves form a rosette from an underground stem. A white, fleshy taproot develops, prominently swollen at the junction of the stemFootnote 8. During the second growing season, a flowering stalk elongates (bolts) from the root. This stalk forms an inflorescence and grows approximately 1.2 to 1.8 metres tall. A large petiolate leaf develops at the base of the stem with small leaves. Further up the stem, there are fewer petiolate leaves and finally, leaves with the blade attached directly to the stem (sessile leaves) develop. Secondary shoots develop at the leaf axils, forming a series of indeterminate racemesFootnote 9. These flowers are small, sessile and occur singly or in clusters. Sugar beets produce a perfect flower consisting of a tricarpellate pistil surrounded by 5 stamens and a perianth of 5 narrow sepals. Petals are absent and each flower is subtended by a slender green bractFootnote 7.

The ovary forms a fruit which is embedded in the base of the perianth of the flower. Each fruit contains a single seed whose shape varies from round to kidney-shaped. The ovaries are enclosed by the common receptacle of the flower clusterFootnote 8. A monogerm seed is formed when a flower occurs singly. A multigerm seed is formed by an aggregation of 2 or more flowersFootnote 10.

3. Geographical distribution

3.1 Origin and history of introduction

The centre of origin of beet (Beta is believed to be the Middle East, near the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. It is thought that wild beets spread west into the Mediterranean and north along the Atlantic coast. The geographic isolation of wild beets on the Canary Islands led to the creation of several distinct species (B. patellaris, B. webbiana, and B. procumbens) that are largely annualFootnote 10. The dispersal of wild types north into the mountains of Turkey, Iran, and Russia led to the establishment of the species B. trigyna B. lomatogona and B. macrorhizaFootnote 10. These species are somewhat perennial in growth habit. Finally, wild beet spread east through most of Eastern Asia. Cultivated sugar beet is likely to have originated from wild maritime beet (B. vulgaris subsp. maritima) through breeding selectionFootnote 10.

3.2 Native range

The native range of B. vulgaris includes some of the Macaronesia Islands, the Asia-Temperate region, and EuropeFootnote 1.

3.3 Introduced range

B. vulgaris is naturalized in:

Sugar beet is widely cultivated in some European countries and the United States. In the United States, B. vulgaris can be found in 4 regions, the Great Lake region (Michigan), the Upper Midwest (Minnesota and North Dakota), the Great Plains (Colorado, Montana, Nebraska, and Wyoming), and the Far West (California, Idaho, Oregon, and Washington)Footnote 12,Footnote 13. In the United States, sugar beet seed production occurs in Oregon and WashingtonFootnote 12. There is no seed production in Canada. The occurrence of sugar beet in Canada is limited to commercial production in Southern Alberta and Southwestern OntarioFootnote 11.

3.4 Potential range in North America

B. vulgaris has been reported in United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Plant Hardiness Zones 4 to 8Footnote 14. Based on these plant hardiness zones, the potential range of B. vulgaris is the southern regions of most of the Canadian provincesFootnote 15.

3.5 Habitat

Sugar beet is primarily cultivated in temperate regions in the Northern Hemisphere at a latitude of 30 to 60 degrees north; however, it has adapted to a wide range of climatic conditionsFootnote 16. Average daytime temperature of between 15.6 and 26.7°C followed by nighttime temperatures of between 4.4°C and 10°C during the growing season are optimal for high yield and qualityFootnote 16. Sugar beet is adapted to a range of soil types and grows best on well drained soils with a pH ranging from 6 to 8Footnote 16. In Canada, seeds are commonly planted from April to May and are harvested from September to early NovemberFootnote 17,Footnote 18.

4. Biology

4.1 Reproductive biology

Sugar beet completes its life cycle in 2 growing seasons (biennial)Footnote 19. During the first year, a high quantity of sucrose is produced in the large taproot, which can be destructively harvested (plants do not survive harvest) for processing into sugar. During the second year, the plant usually uses stored sugars to produce flowers and set seedsFootnote 7. Some sugar beet cultivars can bolt and flower in the first year under conditions including low temperatures and long daysFootnote 20.

Plants begin flowering (anthesis) about 5 to 6 weeks after the initiation of reproductive development. Flowering continues for several weeks. After dehiscence of the mature anthers, the globular pollen is dispersed largely by wind and occasionally by insects. Sugar beet pollen is extremely sensitive to moisture; under dry conditions, its viability is lost within 24 hoursFootnote 21. The primary method of pollination is cross-pollination due to the lack of synchrony between pollen release and receptiveness of the stigma, and strong self-sterility (see below). Pollen dispersal from genetically modified B. vulgaris has been measured up to 1,200 metres from the sourceFootnote 20.

Sugar beet is strongly self-sterile, setting few or no seeds under strict isolation. The underlying genetic mechanisms may be explained by 2 series of multiple sterility allelesFootnote 22. The setting of some seeds after selfing, so-called pseudo-compatibility, is due to a break-down of the incompatibility mechanismFootnote 22. Pseudo-compatibility occurs in varying degrees in different genotypes and is highly influenced by environmental conditions, especially temperatureFootnote 22. There is a self-fertility gene that, when introduced, can create self-fertile plantsFootnote 7.

4.2 Breeding and seed production

Early breeding techniques for sugar beet were developed by the USDA and included cytoplasmic male sterility, monogerm seeds, and hybrid vigourFootnote 23. Today, all sugar beet cultivars in the United States are monogerm hybrids. The use of monogerm sugar beet seed has greatly reduced the need to thin clusters of sugar beet seedlingsFootnote 7. Private seed companies now dominate sugar beet breeding, concentrating on varieties with:

Cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS) allows breeders to develop male-sterile or female parental lines. These lines are a key factor in the breeding of hybrid cultivarsFootnote 24. Originally, sugar beet was a diploid having 2n = 18 chromosomes. Commercial exploitation of polyploidy in sugar beets began in Europe in the 1940s with the development of anisoploid varieties. Such varieties were mixtures including diploid, triploid and tetraploid individuals and were produced by crossing of diploid and tetraploid seed-parentsFootnote 25. Later, the use of cytoplasmic sterility in conjunction with polyploidy allowed the production of triploid varietiesFootnote 24. Higher ploidy levels have been produced experimentally but have had limited commercial application. In Canada and the United States, diploid hybrid cultivars are the dominant cultivars in use.

Hybrid seeds are produced by 2 methods: the stecklings method and the direct-seeded methodFootnote 26. In the stecklings method, small roots known as stecklings are produced in the first season. The following season they are transplanted into the field where seed production will take placeFootnote 26. In the direct-seeded method, male and female parents are planted in the same field, and the seed is harvested from the female plants in the following yearFootnote 26. In both methods, once pollination occurs, the male parent is destroyed to ensure that hybrid seeds are harvested exclusivelyFootnote 26.

4.3 Cultivation and use as a crop

Historically, beets have been used for both livestock and human consumption. The first recorded use of beets is from the Middle East. Records dating to the 12th century contain the earliest descriptions of sugar beets as plants with swollen rootsFootnote 27. It was not until the late 18th century, that German scientists began to breed beets to increase the sugar content of their rootsFootnote 28. Original forms of sugar beet were derived from white Silesian beet, which had been used as a fodder crop and contained only about 4% to 6% sugar. Repeated selection and breeding have raised the sugar content to its present levels, over 18% in optimal growing regionsFootnote 24. In 2021, 40,036 acres of sugar beet were seeded in CanadaFootnote 29.

Cultivation

Sugar beet is grown as an annual crop, and the roots are harvested after 5 to 7 months of growth in southern Alberta and southwestern OntarioFootnote 11. Sugar beet yield and quality can benefit from reduced tillage, cover crops, compost addition, proper nitrogen fertility and optimizing plant densityFootnote 30. There is no sugar beet seed production in Canada.

Crop rotation

In Canada, a minimum 4-year crop rotation is recommended for growing sugar beets. Sugar beet can be rotated with crops including:

Canola is not used in the rotation because sugar beet cyst nematode (Heterodera schachtii) can thrive on canolaFootnote 17.

Weeds

Problematic weeds include:

Health Canada's Pest Management Regulatory Authority maintains a database of approved herbicidesFootnote 35. Please refer to this database for current information on registered herbicides for weed control in sugar beet. Some herbicides may only be registered for use and sale in some provinces.

Herbicides may be applied to the soil before planting, immediately after planting sugar beet (pre-emergence) or after sugar beet and weed emergence (post-emergence) to control weeds. Active ingredients include those listed in table 1.

Table 1: Herbicide active ingredients registered for use on sugar beet. This table is based on products registered as of June 2022Footnote 35
Active ingredient Herbicide group/description Weeds controlled
sethoxydim group 1 (inhibitors of acetyl CoA carboxylase [ACCase]) annual grasses, wild oats, volunteer cereals and quackgrass
triflusulfuron-methyl group 2 (acetolactate synthase [ALS]/ acetohydroxyacid synthase [AHAS] inhibitors) partial or selective control of broadleaf and grass weeds
clopyralid group 4 (synthetic auxins) Canada thistle
phenmedipham and desmedipham group 5 (photosynthetic inhibitors at photosystem II)
  • lambsquarters
  • wild buckwheat
  • green foxtail
  • yellow foxtail
  • mustard
  • pigweed
  • nightshade
  • kochia
  • goosefoot
  • ragweed
  • stinkweed (field pennycress, Frenchweed)
glyphosate
(for glyphosate-tolerant sugar beet only)
group 9 (inhibitors of 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate [EPSP] synthesis) annual and perennial weeds
S-Metolachlor and R-enantiomer group 15 (inhibitors of cell growth and division) nightshades and annual grasses
S-Ethyl dipropylthiocarbamate (EPTC) group 15 (inhibitors of cell growth and division) selective annual grass, broadleaf and perennial weeds
triallate group 15 (inhibitors of cell growth and division) wild oats
ethofumesate group 16 annual broadleaf and grass weeds

4.4 Gene flow during commercial seed and biomass production

B. vulgaris is not invasive of natural habitats in Canada. Therefore, the potential risk of gene flow to wild populations of B. vulgaris is negligible.

There is currently no commercial sugar beet seed production in Canada. Since sugar beets are vegetative in the first year, and Canada's cold winter climate does not allow sugar beet roots to survive (plants are killed by frost at temperatures below negative 5°CFootnote 36), there is little concern with gene flow in fields grown for sugar production. The Canadian Seed Growers' Association (CSGA) has set standards for producing Foundation, Registered and Certified B. vulgaris seedFootnote 37.

4.5 Cultivated sugar beet as a volunteer weed

Weed beet

Weed beet, a progeny of hybrids between sugar beet and wild beet (B. vulgaris subsp. maritima), is an undesirable beet species occurring in managed areas in EuropeFootnote 38,Footnote 39. Weed beet is one of the most significant weed problems in European sugar beet production. Weed beet can arise due to pollination by sexually compatible wild annual relatives, bolting beet plants, dormant seed, and groundkeepers. Groundkeepers are small roots left in the field after harvest, which will flower in the next season if not controlled. There are no documented occurrences of weed beets in CanadaFootnote 19. The absence of weed beet in Canada can be attributed to the lack of annual relatives and cold winter temperatures.

Sugar beet volunteers

Volunteer sugar beets are not a production challenge and do not establish as persistent weedsFootnote 38. Volunteers are rarely observed in unmanaged areas such as ditches or on roadsides from roots lost during transportationFootnote 38. In sugar beet fields, low temperatures and long days can cause sugar beets to bolt and set seed in the first year. This seed can result in volunteers in subsequent cropsFootnote 38. Sugar beet plants are killed by frost at temperatures below negative 5°CFootnote 40. Canada's cold winter climate does not allow sugar beet roots to survive, and any plants produced by seed from bolters do not persist for more than a few months in the environment.

Seed dormancy

No studies were found that evaluated the length of time sugar beet could remain in the seedbank in the Canadian environment. In addition, there is limited information available on the seed dormancy of sugar beet. Literature suggests that dormancy of seeds is due to germination-inhibiting substances on the fruit coatFootnote 41,Footnote 42,Footnote 43. Removal of this fruit coat leads to total germination, thus indicating that the seed itself is not innately dormant and that the presence of the fruit coat is responsible for delayed germinationFootnote 42. More recent reports suggest that seed dormancy in cultivated B. vulgaris crops has been bred out, but remains in wild specieFootnote 44,Footnote 45. This is supported by a germination experimental study on seeds of B. vulgaris cultivars which found little to no dormancy in cultivated B. vulgaris seedsFootnote 46.

Weediness

B. vulgaris is not listed in the Weed Seeds Order 2016. It is not reported as a pest or weed in managed ecosystems in Canada, nor is it recorded as being invasive of natural ecosystems. There is no evidence that in Canada, B. vulgaris has weed or pest characteristics.

4.5.1 Cultural/mechanical control

Sugar beet volunteers do not compete well with crops used in rotation with sugar beets. In addition, sugar beet volunteers are controlled by the typical production practices for crops that follow sugar beets in rotationsFootnote 38. Surviving sugar beets volunteers can be easily controlled using mechanical methods such as tilling between sugar beet and rotational crops or hand weedingFootnote 38.

4.5.2 Chemical control

No herbicides are currently registered for the control of sugar beet volunteers specifically; however, volunteer sugar beets in crops can be controlled using herbicides for weed control in those cropsFootnote 35. In Alberta, sugar beet volunteers are easily controlled with broadleaf herbicides used in cereal cropsFootnote 38. In Ontario, group 4 herbicides applied on small grains and corn crops can easily control sugar beet volunteersFootnote 38.

4.5.3 Integrated weed management

Integrated weed management (IWM) uses a combination of biological, mechanical, and chemical weed control tactics to manage weed populations and maximize economic returns. IWM strategies are not specifically developed for the control of sugar beet volunteers. Sugar beet volunteers will likely be controlled by IWM programs used for managing other weed species. Developing an IWM plan specific to sugar beet may become necessary if herbicide-tolerant sugar beet varieties are planted that limit chemical control options, or if sugar beet volunteers become a production challenge.

4.6 Means of movement and dispersal

The mechanisms for the movement and dispersal of B. vulgaris seeds are unclear. B. vulgaris does not produce many shattering seedsFootnote 47. B. vulgaris seeds might be dispersed by organisms that consume the seeds. Their ability to become established may depend upon the receiving environment; no reports of significant feral populations in natural environments in Canada were found. Sugar beet taproots are most likely to be spread during handling and transportation.

5. Related species of B. vulgaris

5.1 Inter-species/genus hybridization

Important in considering the potential environmental impact following the unconfined release of genetically modified sugar beet, is an understanding of the possible development of hybrids through interspecific and intergeneric crosses with related species. The development of hybrids could result in the introgression of the novel traits into related species resulting in:

The genus Beta to which sugar beet belongs, is comprised of 14 recognized species and sub-species which are divided into 4 sections (see table 2). All evidence demonstrates that B. vulgaris only forms hybrids with specific members within the Beta sectionFootnote 48. All crosses between cultivated B. vulgaris and species from sections other than Beta are highly improbable.

Beta section (formerly Vulgares)

Hybridization between B. vulgaris and specific members within the Beta section can occur in areas where both are present.

The wild species B. vulgaris subsp. maritima, B. macrocarpa, B. patula, and B. vulgaris subsp. adanensis are all cross compatible with B. vulgarisFootnote 7,Footnote 19,Footnote 47. However lower hybridization levels between B. vulgaris and B. macrocarpa have been foundFootnote 47,Footnote 48,Footnote 49. Other studies detected genetic barriers between these 2 species, resulting in partial pollen sterility and embryo abortion in the hybridFootnote 50. Hybrids between B. macrocarpa and B. vulgaris are rare due to their different flowering periodsFootnote 51.

Of the wild relatives that can hybridize with B. vulgaris only B. vulgaris subsp. maritima and B. macrocarpa are present in North America. These isolated populations are limited to California and are not found near sugar beet seed production areas in that state.

No sexually compatible species related to B. vulgaris naturally occur in Canada. Thus, the potential for interspecific gene flow outside of breeding programs is negligible.

Corollinae section

Artificial hybrids have been produced with species in the section Corollinae. However, such hybrids are highly sterile and few plants set seed when backcrossed to B. vulgarisFootnote 47. It is generally not necessary to use bridge species, although B. vulgaris subsp. maritima has been successfully used to introduce traits from B. trigyna into B. vulgaris.

Nanae section

No hybrids between cultivated beets and B. nana of section Nanae have been reported.

Procumbentes section (formerly Patellares)

Artificial hybrids between B. vulgaris and members of the section Procumbentes have been produced with great difficulty. The hybrids become necrotic and die at the seedling stageFootnote 47. Successful hybrids can be produced by grafting hybrids onto sugar beets. These hybrids are almost completely sterile and fertile plants produce little seed upon backcrossingFootnote 47. The chromosomes of the species of section Procumbentes do not pair with those of section BetaFootnote 49.

Table 2. Taxonomic Division of the Genus Beta (based onFootnote 47,Footnote 48,Footnote 52,Footnote 53,Footnote 54)
Section 1: Beta Tranzschel
Species name Chromosome number
B. vulgaris L. subsp. vulgaris 18
B. vulgaris L. subsp. maritima (L.) Arcang 18
B. vulgaris L. subsp. adanensis (Pam.) Ford-Llyod & Williams 18
B. patula (Ait.) 18, 36
B. macrocarpa Guss. 18, 36
Section 2 : Corollinae Ulbrich
Species name Chromosome number
B. macrorhiza (Stev.) 18
B. lomatogona (Fish et Mey.) 18, 36
B. corolliflora (Zos.) 36
B. trigyna (Wald et Kit.) 36, 54
B. intermedia (Bunge) 36, 45
Section 3: Nanae Ulbrich
Species name Chromosome number
B. nana (Bois. Et Held.) 18
Section 4 : Procumbentes Ulbrich (syn. Patellares)
Species name Chromosome number
B. procumbens (Chr. Sm.) 18
B. webbiana (Moq.) 18
B. patellaris (Moq.) 18, 36

5.2 Potential for introgression of genetic information from B. vulgaris into relatives

Relatives of B. vulgaris do not naturally occur in Canada. In the absence of sexually compatible species related to B. vulgaris in Canada, the potential for interspecific gene flow is negligible.

6. Potential interaction of B. vulgaris with other life forms

B. vulgaris is a poor competitor with weeds, particularly early in the season. Weed control is critical from the cotyledon to 12-leaf stage of seedling growth. In fields where weeds are never controlled and consist of tall-growing species, such as Chenopodium album (lambsquarters), yield loss can be as great as 95%Footnote 55. This, however, is unlikely in a commercial situation and a typical yield reduction due to weeds is minimal when weed control is used.

Several insects can attack the developing plant. Sugar beet root maggot is a major pest in Alberta and can be inhibited by a seed applied insecticide. Other invertebrate pests include:

The most common seedling diseases of sugar beet are caused by pathogens from these genera:

The most common root diseases of sugar beet are caused by pathogens from these genera:

Foliar diseases are minimal in Alberta because of low humidity and relatively cool nighttime summer temperatures. In Ontario, cercospora leaf spot is the most economically important foliar disease of sugar beetFootnote 56,Footnote 57 ,Footnote 58. This disease is caused by the fungal pathogen Cercospora beticolaFootnote 56,Footnote 57. Several foliar fungicides and active ingredients are registered in Canada for the management of cercospora leaf spot in sugar beetFootnote 58. Alternaria leaf spot is an emerging disease in the Michigan growing regionFootnote 59. It has been reported in Ontario, but the potential impacts of this disease on sugar beet are not yet fully understoodFootnote 60.

Crop rotation and fungicides are important tools for managing sugar beet cyst nematode and many diseases affecting sugar beet, with sugar beet grown no more frequently than every fourth year with a grain or hay crop in the rotationFootnote 17. Sugar beet cyst nematode has not been reported in sugar beet production in Ontario. Sugar beet fields are monitored annually in Alberta and any fields found with sugar beet cyst nematode would be removed from productionFootnote 61.

Genetic resistance or tolerance exists for some diseases, but additional genetic controls are continuously sought for sustainable long-term controlFootnote 24. Research is underway in Ontario to develop sugar beet varieties with improved resistance cercospora leaf spotFootnote 58.

Please refer to the tables below for examples of interactions of B. vulgaris with other life forms during its life cycle:

Abbreviation list for tables

BC
British Columbia
AB
Alberta
SK
Saskatchewan
MB
Manitoba
ON
Ontario
QC
Quebec
NB
New Brunswick
NS
Nova Scotia
PE
Prince Edward Island
NL
Newfoundland and Labrador
Table 3: Fungi and Oomycetes
Fungi and Oomycetes Interaction with Beta vulgaris (pathogen; symbiont or beneficial organism; consumer; gene transfer) Presence in Canada Reference(s)

cercospora leaf spot

  • Cercospora beticola
pathogen widespread Alberta Agriculture and Rural Development 2014Footnote 62
OMAFRA 2021Footnote 63
Tedford, Burlakoti et al. 2019Footnote 58
Tedford, Burlakoti et al. 2018Footnote 56
Trueman, Hanson et al. 2017Footnote 57

Seedling diseases

  • Pythium ultimum
  • P. aphanidermatum
  • Aphanomyces cochlioides
  • Rhizoctonia solani
pathogen widespread OMAFRA 2016Footnote 64
OECD 2006Footnote 47

rhizoctonia root rot and crown root

seedling disease

  • Rhizoctonia solani
pathogen widespread OMAFRA 2021Footnote 63
Fusarium spp. pathogen widespread OMAFRA 2021Footnote 63

sugar beet powdery mildew

  • Erysiphe betae
pathogen widespread OMAFRA 2021Footnote 63
OECD 2006Footnote 47

leaf spot

  • Alternaria spp.
pathogen widespread Morrall 2013Footnote 65
Table 4: Nematodes
Nematodes Interaction with Beta vulgaris
(pathogen; symbiont or beneficial organism; consumer; gene transfer)
Presence in Canada Reference(s)

sugar beet cyst nematode

  • Heterodera schachtii
consumer widespread, not currently reported in sugar beet production in ON OECD 2006Footnote 47
Morrall 2013Footnote 65
Table 5: Insects
Insects Interaction with Beta vulgaris
(pathogen; symbiont or beneficial organism; consumer; gene transfer)
Presence in Canada Reference(s)

beet leaf miner

  • Pegomya betae
consumer AB, ON, BC Alberta Agriculture and Rural Development 2014Footnote 62
OMAFRA 2021Footnote 63
OMAFRA 2016Footnote 64

beet webworm

  • Loxostege sticticalis
consumer widespread Alberta Agriculture and Rural Development 2014Footnote 62

cutworms

  • Euxoa spp.
consumer widespread OMAFRA 2016Footnote 64
OMAFRA 2021Footnote 63

flea beetles

  • Psylliodes punctulata Melsheimer
consumer widespread OMAFRA 2016Footnote 64
OMAFRA 2021Footnote 63

grasshoppers

  • Melano plus spp.
consumer widespread Alberta Agriculture and Rural Development 2014Footnote 62
Kaur 2021Footnote 66

spinach carrion beetle

  • Silpha bituberosa
consumer AB Alberta Agriculture and Rural Development 2014Footnote 62
Kaur 2021Footnote 66

sugar beet root aphid

  • Pemphigus betae
consumer widespread OECD 2006Footnote 47
Harper 1963Footnote 67
Morrall 2013Footnote 65

sugar beet root maggot

  • Tetanops myopaeformis
consumer AB, MB Daley and Wenninger 2018Footnote 68

wireworms

  • Elateridae
consumer widespread OMAFRA 2021Footnote 63
OMAFRA 2016Footnote 64
pollinators consumer; symbiont or beneficial organism widespread Free, Williams et al. 1975Footnote 69

leafhoppers

  • Cicadellidae spp.
consumer widespread OMAFRA 2021Footnote 63

spider mites

  • Tetranycgus spp.
consumer widespread OMAFRA 2021Footnote 63

white grubs

  • Phyllophaga spp.
consumer widespread OMAFRA 2016Footnote 64
Table 6: Animals
Animals Interaction with Beta vulgaris
(pathogen; symbiont or beneficial organism; consumer; gene transfer)
Presence in Canada Reference(s)

animal browsers including

  • deer
  • hare
  • rabbits
  • rodents
consumer widespread OECD 2006Footnote 47
Vereijssen, Schneider et al. 2007Footnote 70
birds consumer widespread Dunning 1974Footnote 71
Date modified: